Keywords
climate-smart agriculture
smallholder resilience
adaptive capacity
livelihood diversification
climate information services
How to Cite
Abstract
Smallholder farming systems are increasingly exposed to interacting climate, market, and livelihood shocks that threaten production, food security, income stability, and long-term adaptive capacity. This study conducted a PRISMA-ScR-guided scoping review to examine how agricultural extension supports resilient smallholder farming systems across climate, market, livelihood, and compound shocks. Following PRISMA-ScR screening, 58 studies met the eligibility and relevance criteria and were retained for qualitative synthesis. Framework-based thematic analysis was used to examine shock domains, extension modalities, resilience-building mechanisms, resilience capacities, farming and livelihood outcomes, equity dimensions, and evidence gaps. The findings show that the evidence base is strongly concentrated on climate shocks, including drought, rainfall variability, floods, heat stress, pest pressure, water stress, and crop failure. Market and livelihood shocks are less systematically examined, although they appear through input‒price increases, unstable markets, food insecurity, income loss, labor constraints, and gendered vulnerability. Extension was reported as supporting resilience through linked mechanisms of risk awareness, knowledge translation, social learning, access to inputs and services, market linkage, institutional brokerage, and empowerment. The strongest evidence concerns adaptive capacity and practice change, whereas absorptive and transformative capacities remain less consistently measured. The review proposes agricultural extension as a resilient infrastructure: a social and institutional system that connects farmers to knowledge, resources, markets, institutions, and collective learning. Future research should focus on mechanism-based, equity-sensitive, longitudinal, and compound-shock analyses, while policies should strengthen pluralistic extension systems that integrate climate, market, financial, digital, and livelihood advisory support.
References
Abegunde, V. O., Sibanda, M., & Obi, A. (2019). The dynamics of climate change adaptation in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of climate-smart agriculture among small-scale farmers. Climate, 7(11), 132. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli7110132
Abid, M., Ali, A., Rahut, D. B., Raza, M., & Mehdi, M. (2020). Ex-ante and ex-post coping strategies for climatic shocks and adaptation
determinants in rural Malawi. Climate Risk Management, 27, 100200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2019.100200
Acevedo, M., Pixley, K., Zinyengere, N., Meng, S., Tufan, H., Cichy, K., Bizikova, L., Isaacs, K., Ghezzi-Kopel, K., & Porciello, J. (2020). A scoping review of adoption of climate-resilient crops by small-scale producers in low- and middle-income countries. Nature Plants, 6, 1231–1241. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-020-00783-z
Ado, A. M., Savadogo, P., & Abdoul-Azize, H. T. (2019). Livelihood strategies and household resilience to food insecurity: Insight from a farming community in Aguie district of Niger. Agriculture and Human Values, 36, 747–761. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-019-09951-0
Amadu, F. O. (2022). Farmer extension facilitators as a pathway for climate smart agriculture: Evidence from southern Malawi. Climate Policy, 22(9–10), 1097–1112. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2022.2066060
Antwi-Agyei, P., Stringer, L. C., & Dougill, A. J. (2014). Livelihood adaptations to climate variability: Insights from farming households in Ghana. Regional Environmental Change, 14, 1615–1626. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-014-0597-9
Antwi, K., & Antwi-Agyei, P. (2023). Intra-gendered perceptions and adoption of climate-smart agriculture: Evidence from smallholder farmers in the Upper East Region of Ghana. Environmental Challenges, 12, 100736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100736
Arksey, H., & O’Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Method-ology: Theory and Practice, 8(1), 19–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364557032000119616
Aschinger, R., Boillat, S., & Ifejika Speranza, C. (2023). Smallholder livelihood resilience to climate variability in South-Eastern Kenya, 2012–2015. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, 7, 1070083. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2023.1070083
Azzarri, C., & Nico, G. (2022). Sex-disaggregated agricultural extension and weather variability in Africa south of the Sahara. World Devel-opment, 155, 105897. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2022.105897
Batung, E. S., Mohammed, K., Kansanga, M. M., Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., & Luginaah, I. (2023). Credit access and perceived climate change resilience of smallholder farmers in semi-arid northern Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25, 321–350.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-021-02056-x
Cavatassi, R., Phillips, L. M., Maggio, G., Anteneh, Z., & Mabiso, A. (2025). Enhancing households’ livelihoods in agrifood systems: The role of women’s empowerment. Global Food Security, 45, 100856. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2025.100856
Cohn, A. S., Newton, P., Gil, J. D. B., Kuhl, L., Samberg, L., Ricciardi, V., Manly, J. R., & Northrop, S. (2017). Smallholder agriculture and climate change. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 42, 347–375.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-102016-060946
Cooper, P. J. M., Dimes, J., Rao, K. P. C., Shapiro, B., Shiferaw, B., & Twomlow, S. (2008). Coping better with current climatic variability in the rain-fed farming systems of sub-Saharan Africa: An essential first step in adapting to future climate change? Agriculture, Ecosys-tems and Environment, 126(1–2), 24–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2008.01.007
Davis, K. F., Downs, S., & Gephart, J. A. (2021). Towards food supply chain resilience to environmental shocks. Nature Food, 2, 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-020-00196-3
Descheemaeker, K., Oosting, S. J., Homann-Kee Tui, S., Masikati, P., Falconnier, G. N., & Giller, K. E. (2016). Climate change adaptation and mitigation in smallholder crop–livestock systems in sub-Saharan Africa: A call for integrated impact assessments. Regional
Environmental Change, 16, 2331–2343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-016-0957-8
Douxchamps, S., Debevec, L., Giordano, M., & Barron, J. (2017). Monitoring and evaluation of climate resilience for agricultural development – A review of currently available tools. World Development Perspectives, 5, 10–23.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wdp.2017.02.001
Endalew, H. A., & Sen, S. (2020). Effects of climate shocks on Ethiopian rural households: An integrated livelihood vulnerability approach. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 64(3), 399–431. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2020.1764840
Goodwin, D., Holman, I., Pardthaisong, L., Visessri, S., Ekkawatpanit, C., & Rey Vicario, D. (2022). What is the evidence linking financial assistance for drought-affected agriculture and resilience in tropical Asia? A systematic review. Regional Environmental Change, 22, 12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-021-01867-y
Haworth, B. T., Biggs, E., Duncan, J., Wales, N., Boruff, B., & Bruce, E. (2018). Geographic information and communication technologies for supporting smallholder agriculture and climate resilience. Climate, 6(4), 97. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6040097
Holland, M. B., Shamer, S. Z., Imbach, P., Zamora, J. C., Medellin Moreno, C., Hidalgo, E. J. L., Donatti, C. I., Martínez-Rodríguez, M. R., & Harvey, C. A. (2017). Mapping adaptive capacity and smallholder agriculture: Applying expert knowledge at the landscape scale.
Climatic Change, 141, 139–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-016-1810-2
Jena, P. R., Tanti, P. C., & Maharjan, K. L. (2023). Determinants of adoption of climate resilient practices and their impact on yield and household income. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14, 100659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100659
Kalidou, A. I., Qi, G., Ndimbo, G. K., & Wu, B. (2024). The value of indigenous knowledge for enhancing smallholders’ resilience to climate change and food insecurity: A case study of small-scale irrigation system in Niger. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 22(1), 2406062. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2024.2406062
Kansiime, M. K., & Mastenbroek, A. (2016). Enhancing resilience of farmer seed system to climate-induced stresses: Insights from a case study in West Nile region, Uganda. Journal of Rural Studies, 47, 220–230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2016.08.004
Khatibu, S., & Ngowi, E. (2025). Effectiveness of climate information services in Sub-Saharan Africa’s agricultural sector: A systematic review of what works, what doesn’t work, and why. Frontiers in Climate, 7, 1616691. https://doi.org/10.3389/fclim.2025.1616691
Koczberski, G., Curry, G. N., Bue, V., Germis, E., Nake, S., & Tilden, G. M. (2018). Diffusing risk and building resilience through innovation: Reciprocal exchange relationships, livelihood vulnerability and food security amongst smallholder farmers in Papua New Guinea.
Human Ecology, 46, 801–814. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0032-9
Kuhl, L. (2018). Potential contributions of market-systems development initiatives for building climate resilience. World Development, 108, 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.02.036
Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O’Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: Advancing the methodology. Implementation Science, 5, 69.
https://doi.org/10.1186/1748-5908-5-69
Lidder, P., Cattaneo, A., & Chaya, M. (2025). Innovation and technology for achieving resilient and inclusive rural transformation. Global Food Security, 44, 100827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2025.100827
Lipper, L., Puri, J., Cavatassi, R., & McCarthy, N. (2022). How does climate change affect the evidence we need for agricultural development? Agricultural Economics, 53(6), 911–923. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12732
Lutta, A., Kehbila, A., Mungo, C., Sunguti, E., Osano, P., & Kisang, O. (2024). Building climate-resilient value chains in arid and semi-arid regions: A VC-ARID approach for rangeland adaptation in Kenya. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 28, 6125–6148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-024-05229-6
Makate, C., Makate, M., Mango, N., & Siziba, S. (2019). Increasing resilience of smallholder farmers to climate change through multiple adoption of proven climate-smart agriculture innovations. Lessons from Southern Africa. Journal of Environmental Management, 231, 858–868. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.069
Mapfumo, P., Mtambanengwe, F., & Chikowo, R. (2016). Building on indigenous knowledge to strengthen the capacity of smallholder farming communities to adapt to climate change and variability in southern Africa. Climate and Development, 8(1), 72–82.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2014.998604
Marsden, A. R., Zander, K. K., & Lassa, J. A. (2023). Smallholder farming during COVID-19: A systematic review concerning impacts,
adaptations, barriers, policy, and planning for future pandemics. Land, 12(2), 404. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12020404
McCord, P. F., Cox, M., Schmitt-Harsh, M., & Evans, T. (2015). Crop diversification as a smallholder livelihood strategy within semi-arid
agricultural systems near Mount Kenya. Land Use Policy, 42, 738–750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2014.10.012
Mekonnen, S. A., Jalata, D. D., & Onyeaka, H. (2024). Building resilience in Sub-Saharan Africa’s food systems: Diversification, traceability, capacity building and technology for overcoming challenges. Food and Energy Security, 13(4), e563.
https://doi.org/10.1002/fes3.563
Michalscheck, M., Kizito, F., Kotu, B. H., Avornyo, F. K., Timler, C., & Groot, J. C. J. (2023). Preparing for, coping with and bouncing back after shocks. A nuanced resilience assessment for smallholder farms and farmers in Northern Ghana. International Journal of Agri-cultural Sustainability, 21(1), 2241283. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2023.2241283
Mohammed, K., Batung, E., Kansanga, M., Nyantakyi-Frimpong, H., & Luginaah, I. (2021). Livelihood diversification strategies and resilience to climate change in semi-arid northern Ghana. Climatic Change, 164, 53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-021-03034-y
Murray, U., Gebremedhin, Z., Brychkova, G., & Spillane, C. (2016). Smallholder farmers and climate smart agriculture: Technology and la-bor-productivity constraints amongst women smallholders in Malawi. Gender, Technology and Development, 20(2), 117–148.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0971852416640639
Ngigi, M. W., Mueller, U., & Birner, R. (2021). Livestock diversification for improved resilience and welfare outcomes under climate risks in Kenya. European Journal of Development Research, 33, 1625–1648. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-020-00308-6
Njuguna, E., Daum, T., Birner, R., & Mburu, J. (2025). Silicon Savannah and smallholder farming: How can digitalization contribute to sus-tainable agricultural transformation in Africa? Agricultural Systems, 222, 104180.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2024.104180
Nkiaka, E., Taylor, A., Dougill, A. J., Antwi-Agyei, P., Fournier, N., Bosire, E. N., Konte, O., Lawal, K. A., Mutai, B., Mwangi, E., Ticehurst, H., Toure, A., & Warnaars, T. (2019). Identifying user needs for weather and climate services to enhance resilience to climate shocks in sub-Saharan Africa. Environmental Research Letters, 14(12), 123003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab4dfe
Ofosu, A., Minh, T. T., & Birhanu, B. Z. (2025). Unpacking innovation demands for climate-resilient mixed farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa: A case of Northern Ghana. Journal of Agriculture, Food Systems, and Community Development, 14(2), 461–482.
https://doi.org/10.5304/jafscd.2025.142.020
Ofosu-Ampong, K., Abera, W., Mesfin, T., & Abate, T. (2025). Digital agro-advisory tools in the global south: A behavioural analysis of impacts, and future directions. Discover Agriculture, 3, 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00190-y
Panja, A., Garai, S., Maiti, S., Goswami, R., Zade, S., Veldandi, A., Gangopadhyay, D., & Sankhala, G. (2026). Mapping resilience pathway of smallholder farming community to cyclone-led climate disasters in coastal West Bengal, India. Global Environmental Change, 96, 103108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2025.103108
Petersen-Rockney, M., Baur, P., Guzman, A., Bender, S. F., Calo, A., Castillo, F., De Master, K., Dumont, A., Esquivel, K., Kremen, C., LaChance, J., Mooshammer, M., Ory, J., Price, M. J., Socolar, Y., Stanley, P., Iles, A., & Bowles, T. (2021). Narrow and brittle or broad and nimble? Comparing adaptive capacity in simplifying and diversifying farming systems. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Sys-tems, 5, 564900. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2021.564900
Peters, M. D. J., Marnie, C., Tricco, A. C., Pollock, D., Munn, Z., Alexander, L., McInerney, P., Godfrey, C. M., & Khalil, H. (2020). Updated methodological guidance for the conduct of scoping reviews. JBI Evidence Synthesis, 18(10), 2119–2126.
https://doi.org/10.11124/JBIES-20-00167
Pienaah, C. K. A., Antabe, R., Arku, G., & Luginaah, I. (2024). Farmer field schools, climate action plans and climate change resilience among smallholder farmers in Northern Ghana. Climatic Change, 177, 90. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-024-03755-w
Pienaah, C. K. A., & Luginaah, I. (2024). The impact of village savings and loan associations as a financial and climate resilience strategy for mitigating food insecurity in Northern Ghana. Risks, 12(4), 58. https://doi.org/10.3390/risks12040058
Porciello, J., Coggins, S., Mabaya, E., & Otunba-Payne, G. (2022). Digital agriculture services in low- and middle-income countries: A sys-tematic scoping review. Global Food Security, 34, 100640. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2022.100640
Ramilan, T., Kumar, S., Haileslassie, A., Craufurd, P., Scrimgeour, F., Kattarkandi, B., & Whitbread, A. (2022). Quantifying farm household resilience and the implications of livelihood heterogeneity in the semi-arid tropics of India. Agriculture, 12(4), 466.
https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12040466
Saran, A., Singh, S., Gupta, N., Walke, S. C., Rao, R., Simiyu, C., Malhotra, S., Mishra, A., Puskur, R., Masset, E., White, H., & Waddington, H. S. (2024). Interventions promoting resilience through climate smart agricultural practices for women farmers: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 20(3), e1426. https://doi.org/10.1002/cl2.1426
Silici, L., Rowe, A., Suppiramaniam, N., & Knox, J. W. (2021). Building adaptive capacity of smallholder agriculture to climate change: Evi-dence synthesis on learning outcomes. Environmental Research Communications, 3(12), 122001.
https://doi.org/10.1088/2515-7620/ac44df
Singh, M., Ouedraogo, M., Jimenez, D., Talsma, T., Ouedraogo, A., Kagabo, D., Ramirez, J., & Laderach, P. (2025). Mapping the climate and agronomic digital advisory services landscape in West and Central Africa: A step towards making food systems productive and climate resilient. PLOS One, 20(12), e0338010. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0338010
Staub, C. G., & Clarkson, G. (2021). Farmer-led participatory extension leads Haitian farmers to anticipate climate-related risks and adjust livelihood strategies. Journal of Rural Studies, 81, 235–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2020.10.029
Tambo, J. A., & Wünscher, T. (2017). Enhancing resilience to climate shocks through farmer innovation: Evidence from northern Ghana. Re-gional Environmental Change, 17, 1505–1514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-017-1113-9
Tamru, S., Hansen, J., Zebiak, S., Tesfaye, A., Minten, B., Demissie, T., Radeny, M., Tesfaye, K., & Solomon, D. (2025). Climate information services enhance farmers’ resilience to climate change: Impacts on agricultural productivity. Climate Risk Management, 49, 100724. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2025.100724
Thottadi, B. P., & Singh, S. P. (2024). Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) adaptation, adaptation determinants and extension services synergies: A systematic review. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 29, 22.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-024-10113-9
Tricco, A. C., Lillie, E., Zarin, W., O’Brien, K. K., Colquhoun, H., Levac, D., Moher, D., Peters, M. D. J., Horsley, T., Weeks, L., Hempel, S., Akl, E. A., Chang, C., McGowan, J., Stewart, L., Hartling, L., Aldcroft, A., Wilson, M. G., Garritty, C., … Straus, S. E. (2018). PRISMA extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine, 169(7), 467–473.
https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-0850
Tripathi, H. G., Smith, H. E., Sait, S. M., Sallu, S. M., Whitfield, S., Jankielsohn, A., Kunin, W. E., Mazibuko, N., & Nyhodo, B. (2021). Impacts of COVID-19 on diverse farm systems in Tanzania and South Africa. Sustainability, 13(17), 9863.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13179863
Vernooy, R. (2022). Does crop diversification lead to climate-related resilience? Improving the theory through insights on practice. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 46(6), 877–901. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2022.2076184
Warner, D., Moonsammy, S., & Joseph, J. (2022). Factors that influence the use of climate information services for agriculture: A systematic review. Climate Services, 28, 100336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2022.100336
Wekesa, B. M., Ayuya, O. I., & Lagat, J. K. (2018). Effect of climate-smart agricultural practices on household food security in smallholder production systems: Micro-level evidence from Kenya. Agriculture and Food Security, 7, 80.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0230-0
Williams, P. A., Crespo, O., Abu, M., & Simpson, N. P. (2018). A systematic review of how vulnerability of smallholder agricultural systems to changing climate is assessed in Africa. Environmental Research Letters, 13(10), 103004.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aae026
Williams, T. G., Guikema, S. D., Brown, D. G., & Agrawal, A. (2020). Resilience and equity: Quantifying the distributional effects of
resilience-enhancing strategies in a smallholder agricultural system. Agricultural Systems, 182, 102832.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2026 Md Nazirul Islam Sarker